Cows require two primary types of feed: roughage and concentrate. Roughage includes grass, hay, corn stalks, silage, and high-quality forages like Leymus chinensis. These are essential for maintaining a healthy digestive system. On the other hand, concentrate feeds such as corn, cottonseed meal, and bran provide energy and nutrients needed for growth and milk production. Green fodder consists of natural forages, cultivated pastures, and vegetable-based feeds. It is highly palatable and easy to digest but has a high moisture content and large volume. Legume-based green feeds, like clover or alfalfa, are more nutritious than grasses or vegetables. Common options include grasses, corn leaves, broccoli, cabbage, sweet potato vines, peanut vines, and carrots. Silage is a method of preserving fresh, juicy feed like corn stover, sweet potato vines, and elephant grass. The process involves chopping the material, compacting it in a sealed container, and allowing it to ferment using lactic acid bacteria. This results in a sour, preserved feed that can be stored for months or even years. For successful silage, the raw materials must have the right balance of sugar and moisture—ideally between 65% and 70%. Too much moisture leads to nutrient loss and bad bacteria growth, while too little makes compaction difficult and increases spoilage risk. When building a silo, choose a dry, well-drained area with good sunlight. The structure should be sturdy, airtight, and waterproof. Materials like stones can be used for walls and floors. The feed should be cut into small pieces to release juices and aid fermentation. During filling, the material must be packed tightly, especially along the edges, to remove air pockets. Once full, cover the silo with plastic, straw, and soil, ensuring a thick, secure layer. Monitor regularly to prevent cracks or water intrusion. After about 40 days, silage is ready for use. When opening, remove the top layer first, as it may have spoiled. Good silage is yellow-green, aromatic, and soft. Avoid feeding dark, moldy, or rancid silage. Use it within a day to prevent spoilage, which can cause illness in cattle. Adult cows typically receive 10–20 kg per day, dairy cows 15–20 kg, and calves 5–10 kg. Roughage also includes straw and hay. High-quality hay is rich in protein, carotene, vitamin D, and minerals. While straw has lower nutritional value, it helps maintain rumen health. To improve its digestibility, straw can be treated with lime, sodium hydroxide, or ammonia. Alkali treatment softens the cell walls, making it easier for cows to digest. However, this process may reduce some nutrients, so legume straw should be avoided. Concentrate feeds are divided into energy and protein sources. Energy concentrates like corn, wheat, and barley supply calories, while protein concentrates such as soybean meal and cottonseed cake provide essential amino acids. Dairy cow diets are designed to meet nutritional needs at different life stages, support health and milk quality, and ensure cost-effectiveness. Fiber is a key priority in these formulations, as it promotes proper digestion and milk production.

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